Fungal Microbiome of Alive and Dead Korean Fir in its Native Habitats.

A rapid decline of Abies koreana has been reported in most of the natural alpine habitats in Korea. It is generally accepted that this phenomenon is due to climate change even though no clear conclusions have been drawn. Most research has focused on abiotic environmental factors, but studies on the relationships between A. koreana and soil fungal microbiomes are scarce. In this study, the rhizoplane and rhizosphere fungal communities in the alive and dead Korean fir trees from its three major natural habitats including Mt. Deogyu, Mt. Halla, and Mt. Jiri in Korea were investigated to identify specific soil fungal groups closely associated with A. koreana. Soil fungal diversity in each study site was significantly different from another based on the beta diversity calculations. Heat tree analysis at the genus level showed that Clavulina, Beauveria, and Tomentella were most abundant in the healthy trees probably by forming ectomycorrhizae with Korean fir growth and controlling pests and diseases. However, Calocera, Dacrymyces, Gyoerffyella, Hydnotrya, Microdochium, Hyaloscypha, Mycosymbioces, and Podospora were abundant in the dead trees. Our findings suggested that Clavulina, Beauveria, and Tomentella are the major players that could be considered in future reforestation programs to establish ectomycorrhizal networks and promote growth. These genera may have played a significant role in the survival and growth of A. koreana in its natural habitats. In particular, the genus Gyoerffyella may account for the death of the seedlings. Our work presented exploratory research on the specific fungal taxa associated with the status of A. koreana.

Four Unrecorded Aspergillus Species from the Rhizosphere Soil in South Korea.

The genus Aspergillus is commonly isolated from various marine and terrestrial environments; however, only a few species have been studied in rhizosphere soil. As part of the Korean indigenous fungal excavation project, we investigated fungal diversity from rhizosphere soil, focusing on Aspergillus species. A total of 13 strains were isolated from the rhizosphere soil of three different plants. Based on phylogenetic analysis of ß-tubulin and calmodulin and morphological characteristics, we identified five Aspergillus species. A. calidoustus and A. pseudodeflectus were commonly isolated from the rhizosphere soil. Four species were confirmed as unrecorded species in Korea: A. calidoustus, A. dimorphicus, A. germanicus, and A. pseudodeflecuts. The detailed morphological descriptions of these unrecorded species are provided.

Rhizoplane and Rhizosphere Fungal Communities of Geographically Isolated Korean Bellflower (Campanula takesimana Nakai).

Fungal communities in the rhizoplane (RP) and rhizosphere (RS) of geographically isolated C. takesimana habitats in different environments such as oceanic (Seodo, the Dokdo Islands), coastline (Sadong, Ulleungdo Island), and inland (Taeha, Ulleungdo Island) regions were analyzed by MiSeq sequencing. In total, 1279 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were obtained and they were further classified into 185 genera belonging to five phyla. The total number of fungal taxa in the RP samples was lower than those in the RS samples in all the sampled locations, providing an indication of the existence of a certain level of the selective pressures from the host plant. The richness of the RP in the Dokdo Islands was higher than that of Ulleungdo Island, but the richness of the RS in the Dokdo Islands was lower than that of Ulleungdo Island. These results suggest evidence for strong effects of a harsh geo-climate on the RP and RS fungal diversities in the Dokdo Islands. Additionally, a total of 82 fungal genera were identified in all three RP samples and 63 genera (77%) were uniquely found in each of the geographical regions and 43 genera (52.4%) showed high dependency on the C. takesimana vegetation. It was found that the genus Mortierella was the most dominant taxon in all the samples. The geo-ecological isolation of the Korean bellflower may have caused unique formation of the RP and RS fungal communities in the natural habitats.

Biodegradative Activities of Fungal Strains Isolated from Terrestrial Environments in Korea.

Polylactic acid (PLA) and polycaprolactone (PCL) are commercially available bioplastics that are exploited worldwide, and both are biodegradable. The PLA and PCL polymer-degrading activity of 30 fungal strains that were isolated from terrestrial environments were screened based on the formation of a clear zone around fungal colonies on agar plates containing emulsified PLA or PCL. Among them, five strains yielded positive results of biodegradation. Strains Korean Agricultural Culture Collection (KACC) 83034BP and KNUF-20-PPH03 exhibited PCL degradation; two other strains, KACC 83035BP and KNUF-20-PDG05, degraded PLA; and the fifth strain, KACC 83036BP, biodegraded both tested plastics. Based on phylogenetic analyses using various combinations of the sequences of internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions, RPB2, LSU, CAL, and ß-TUB genes, the above-mentioned strains were identified as Apiotrichum porosum, Penicillium samsonianum, Talaromyces pinophilus, Purpureocillium lilacinum, and Fusicolla acetilerea, respectively. Based on our knowledge, this is the first report on (i) plastic biodegraders among Apiotrichum and Fusicolla species, (ii) the capability of T. pinophilus to degrade biodegradable plastics, (iii) the biodegradative activity of P. samsonianum against PCL, and (iv) the accurate identification of P. lilacinum as a PLA biodegrader. Further studies should be conducted to determine how the fungal species can be utilized in Korea.

Geographical Isolation and Root-Associated Fungi in the Marine Terrains: A Step Toward Establishing a Strategy for Acquiring Unique Microbial Resources.

This study aimed to understand whether the geo-ecological segregation of native plant species affects the root-associated fungal community. Rhizoplane (RP) and rhizosphere (RS) fungal microbiota of Sedum takesimense native to three geographically segregated coastal regions (volcanic ocean islands) were analyzed using culture-independent methods: 568,507 quality sequences, 1399 operational taxonomic units, five phyla, and 181 genera were obtained. Across all regions, significant differences in the phyla distribution and ratio were confirmed. The Chao's richness value was greater for RS than for RP, and this variance coincided with the number of genera. In contrast, the dominance of specific genera in the RS (Simpson value) was lower than the RP at all sites. The taxonomic identity of most fungal species (95%) closely interacting with the common host plant was different. Meanwhile, a considerable number of RP only residing fungal genera were thought to have close interdependency on their host halophyte. Among these, Metarhizium was the sole genus common to all sites. These suggest that the relationship between potential symbiotic fungi and their host halophyte species evolved with a regional dependency, in the same halophyte species, and of the same natural habitat (volcanic islands); further, the fungal community differenced in distinct geographical regions. Importantly, geographical segregation should be accounted for in national culture collections, based on taxonomical uniqueness.

Penicillium from Rhizosphere Soil in Terrestrial and Coastal Environments in South Korea.

Penicillium, the most common genus plays an important ecological role in various terrestrial and marine environments. However, only a few species have been reported from rhizosphere soil. As part of a project to excavate Korean indigenous fungi, we investigated rhizosphere soil of six plants in the forest (terrestrial habitat) and sand dunes (coastal habitat) and focused on discovering Penicillium species. A total of 64 strains were isolated and identified as 26 Penicillium species in nine sections based on morphological characteristics and the sequence analysis of ß-tubulin and calmodulin. Although this is a small-scale study in a limited rhizosphere soil, eight unrecorded species and four potential new species have been identified. In addition, most Penicillium species from rhizosphere soil were unique to each plant. Penicillium halotolerans, P. scabrosum, P. samsonianum, P. jejuense, and P. janczewskii were commonly isolated from rhizosphere soil. Eight Penicillium species, P. aurantioviolaceum, P. bissettii, P. cairnsense, P. halotolerans, P. kananaskense, P. ortum, P. radiatolobatum, and P. verhagenii were recorded for the first time in Korea. Here, we provide the detailed morphological description of these unrecorded species.

A New Species of Thelonectria and a New Record of Cephalotrichum hinnuleum from Gunwi and Ulleungdo in Korea.

Three fungal strains belonging to the class Sordariomycetes were isolated from soils collected from Gyeongsangbuk-do in Korea. They were identified as Cephalotrichum hinnuleum (UD CT 1-3-3 and KNU-19GWF1) and Thelonectria chlamydospora sp. nov. (UD ST 1-2-1). T. chlamydospora sp. nov. was morphologically identical to T. truncata, but its specific macroconidial dimensions, lower number of septations, and chlamydospore diameter render it distinct from the strains of the genus Thelonectria. The strains UD CT 1-3-3 and KNU-19GWF1 were developed flat, velvety to felty, and golden gray to brown-gray after 14 days of incubation at 25 °C on PDA. These strains were produced polyblastic conidiogenous cells and conidia were pale brown to brown, smooth, thin-walled, subglobose to ellipsoidal, arranged in chains, and the diameters of 6.7-9.0 × 3.7-5.1 µm. The strains were also confirmed by using the multi-locus genes using internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions, partial large subunit (LSU), translation elongation factor 1α (TEF1-α), ß-tubulin (TUB2), and actin (ACT) genes. This is the discovery of T. chlamydospora sp. nov. and Cephalotrichum hinnuleum, a new record from Korea.

Fungal Clusters and Their Uniqueness in Geographically Segregated Wetlands: A Step Forward to Marsh Conservation for a Wealth of Future Fungal Resources.

Here, we investigated fungal microbiota in the understory root layer of representative well-conserved geographically segregated natural wetlands in the Korean Peninsula. We obtained 574,143 quality fungal sequences in total from soil samples in three wetlands, which were classified into 563 operational taxonomic units (OTU), 5 phyla, 84 genera. Soil texture, total nitrogen, organic carbon, pH, and electrical conductivity of soil were variable between geographical sites. We found significant differences in fungal phyla distribution and ratio, as well as genera variation and richness between the wetlands. Diversity was greater in the Jangdo islands wetland than in the other sites (Chao richness/Shannon/Simpson's for wetland of the Jangdo islands: 283/6.45/0.97 > wetland of the Mt. Gariwang primeval forest: 169/1.17/0.22 > wetland of the Hanbando geology: 145/4.85/0.91), and this variance corresponded to the confirmed number of fungal genera or OTUs (wetlands of Jangdo islands: 42/283 > of Mt. Gariwang primeval forest: 32/169 > of the Hanbando geology: 25/145). To assess the uniqueness of the understory root layer fungus taxa, we analyzed fungal genera distribution. We found that the percentage of fungal genera common to two or three wetland sites was relatively low at 32.3%, while fungal genera unique to each wetland site was 67.7% of the total number of identified fungal species. The Jangdo island wetland had higher fungal diversity than did the other sites and showed the highest level of uniqueness among fungal genera (Is. Jangdo wetland: 34.5% > wetland of Mt. Gariwang primeval forest: 28.6% > wetland of the Hanbando geology: 16.7%).

Talaromyces halophytorum sp. nov. Isolated from Roots of Limonium tetragonum in Korea.

Talaromyces halophytorum sp. nov. was isolated from the roots of halophyte Limonium tetragonum collected from Seocheon-gun, Korea in November 2015. It showed a slow growth on yeast extract sucrose agar at 25 °C, no growth at 4 °C or 37 °C and produced smooth-walled and globose to sub-globose conidia. T. halophytorum is phylogenetically distinct from the other reported Talaromyces species of section Trachyspermi based on multi-locus sequence typing results using partial fragments of ß-tubulin, calmodulin, ITS, and RNA polymerase II genes.

Microbial control measures for soft ice cream in franchise brands: A comparative analysis of microbial analysis and manufacturing practices.

The aim of this study was to establish a complementary direction of the franchise food hygiene guideline to control microbial risks. We evaluated current measures of preventing microbial spoilage and ensuring microbiological safety of food in the food franchise industry. Manufacturing practices were assessed using microbiological analyses, third-party food safety audits, and existing hygiene guidelines. Microbial load indicators of food, manufacturing processes, work environment, and workers were also analyzed to track microbial proliferation. We audited manufacturing practices and processes and analyzed the cleaning and sanitation clauses. We found high contamination of heterotrophic bacteria and detected coliforms in some products. There was no direct contamination by food handlers, and the sterility of raw materials was satisfactory. The main issues were structural complexities of equipment, which hindered cleaning and disinfection, and disinfection practices of franchise brands. Store-level microbial control may be compromised due to the industrial nature of small stores operating collectively. We thus issued complementary guidelines. Improved collective microbiological safety may be ensured through implementation of the revised cleaning and sterilization regulations.

Penicillium ulleungdoense sp. nov. from Ulleung Island in Korea.

In a study of the fungal diversity on Ulleung Island in Korea, three novel strains of Penicillium were isolated. Different sites on Ulleung Island were selected for collecting endophytic fungi, and three endophytic fungal strains showed unique morphological characteristics. DNA sequence of the internal transcribed spacer, ß-tubulin, calmodulin, and RNA polymerase II second largest subunit regions of the strains were analyzed and they showed unique taxonomic position from the other species of Penicillium section Sclerotiora. The new strains were named Penicillium ulleungdoense sp. nov. As the novel endophytic Penicillium taxa were discovered in a unique environment, the data could be meaningful for understanding the geographical distribution of Ascomycetes on Ulleung Island.

Molecular Imaging of the Glomerulus via Mesangial Cell Uptake of Radiolabeled Tilmanocept.

An unmet need for the clinical management of chronic kidney disease is a predictive tool of kidney function during the first decade of the disease, when there is silent loss of glomerular function. The objective of this study was to demonstrate receptor-mediated binding of tilmanocept to CD206 within the kidney and provide evidence of kinetic sensitivity of this binding to renal function. Methods: Rats were positioned in a PET scanner with the liver and kidneys within the field of view. After an intravenous injection of 68Ga-IRDye800-tilmanocept, using 1 of 2 scaled molar doses (0.02 nmol/g, n = 5; or 0.10 nmol/g, n = 5), or coinjection (n = 3) of 68Ga-IRDye800-tilmanocept (0.10 nmol/g) and unlabeled tilmanocept (5.0 nmol/g), or a negative control, 68Ga-IRDye800-DTPA-galactosyl-dextran (0.02 nmol/g, n = 5), each animal was imaged for 20 min followed by a whole-body scan. Frozen kidney sections were stained for podocytes and CD206 using immunofluorescence. Molecular imaging of diabetic db/db mice (4.9 wk, n = 6; 7.3 wk, n = 4; 13.3 wk, n = 6) and nondiabetic db/m mice (n = 6) was performed with fluorescence-labeled 99mTc-tilmanocept (18.5 MBq, 2.6 nmol). Thirty minutes after injection, blood, liver, kidneys, and urine were assayed for radioactivity. Renal time-activity curves were generated. Results: Rat PET whole-body images and time-activity curves of 68Ga-IRDye800-tilmanocept demonstrated receptor-mediated renal accumulation with evidence of glomerular uptake. Activity within the renal cortex persisted during the 40-min study. Histologic examination demonstrated colocalization of CD206 and IRDye800-tilmanocept within the glomerulus. The glomerular accumulation of the coinjection and the negative control studies were significantly less than the CD206-targeted agent. The db/db mice displayed a multiphasic renal time-activity curve with high urinary bladder accumulation; the nondiabetic mice exhibited renal uptake curves dominated by a single phase with low bladder accumulation. Conclusion: This study demonstrated receptor-mediated binding to the glomerular mesangial cells and kinetic sensitivity of tilmanocept to chronic renal disease. Given the role of mesangial cells during the progression of diabetic nephropathy, PET or SPECT renal imaging with radiolabeled tilmanocept may provide a noninvasive quantitative assessment of glomerular function.

Metabolism-mediated induction of zinc tolerance in Brassica rapa by Burkholderia cepacia CS2-1.

Brassica rapa (Chinese cabbage) is an essential component of traditional Korean food. However, the crop is often subject to zinc (Zn+) toxicity from contaminated irrigation water, which, as a result, compromises plant growth and production, as well as the health of human consumers. The present study investigated the bioaccumulation of Zn+ by Burkholderia cepacia CS2-1 and its effect on the heavy metal tolerance of Chinese cabbage. Strain CS2-1 was identified and characterized on the basis of 16S rRNA sequences and phylogenetic analysis. The strain actively produced indole-3-acetic acid (3.08 ± 0.21 µg/ml) and was also able to produce siderophore, solubilize minerals, and tolerate various concentrations of Zn+. The heavy metal tolerance of B. rapa plants was enhanced by CS2-1 inoculation, as indicated by growth attributes, Zn+ uptake, amino acid synthesis, antioxidant levels, and endogenous hormone (ABA and SA) synthesis. Without inoculation, the application of Zn+ negatively affected the growth and physiology of B. rapa plants. However, CS2-1 inoculation improved plant growth, lowered Zn+ uptake, altered both amino acid regulation and levels of flavonoids and phenolics, and significantly decreased levels of superoxide dismutase, endogenous abscisic acid, and salicylic acid. These findings indicate that B. cepacia CS2-1 is suitable for bioremediation against Zn+-induced oxidative stress.

Distribution, Characterization, and Diversity of the Endophytic Fungal Communities on Korean Seacoasts Showing Contrasting Geographic Conditions.

This study analyzed the distribution of endophytic fungi in 3 coastal environments with different climatic, geographical, and geological characteristics: the volcanic islands of Dokdo, the East Sea, and the West Sea of Korea. The isolated fungal endophytes were characterized and analyzed with respect to the characteristics of their host environments. For this purpose, we selected common native coastal halophyte communities from three regions. Molecular identification of the fungal endophytes showed clear differences among the sampling sites and halophyte host species. Isolates were also characterized by growth at specific salinities or pH gradients, with reference to previous geographical, geological, and climate studies. Unlike the East Sea or West Sea isolates, some Dokdo Islands isolates showed endurable traits with growth in high salinity, and many showed growth under extremely alkaline conditions. A smaller proportion of West Sea coast isolates tolerate compared to the East Sea or Dokdo Islands isolates. These results suggest that these unique fungal biota developed through a close interaction between the host halophyte and their environment, even within the same halophyte species. Therefore, this study proposes the application of specific fungal resources for restoring sand dunes and salt-damaged agricultural lands and industrialization of halophytic plants.

Cutaneous Microflora from Geographically Isolated Groups of Bradysia agrestis, an Insect Vector of Diverse Plant Pathogens.

Larvae of Bradysia agrestis, an insect vector that transports plant pathogens, were sampled from geographically isolated regions in Korea to identify their cutaneous fungal and bacterial flora. Sampled areas were chosen within the distribution range of B. agrestis; each site was more than 91 km apart to ensure geographical segregation. We isolated 76 microbial (fungi and bacteria) strains (site 1, 29; site 2, 29; site 3, 18 strains) that were identified on the basis of morphological differences. Species identification was molecularly confirmed by determination of universal fungal internal transcribed spacer and bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequences in comparison to sequences in the EzTaxon database and the NCBI GenBank database, and their phylogenetic relationships were determined. The fungal isolates belonged to 2 phyla, 5 classes, and 7 genera; bacterial species belonged to 23 genera and 32 species. Microbial diversity differed significantly among the geographical groups with respect to Margalef's richness (3.9, 3.6, and 4.5), Menhinick's index (2.65, 2.46, and 3.30), Simpson's index (0.06, 0.12, and 0.01), and Shannon's index (2.50, 2.17, and 2.58). Although the microbial genera distribution or diversity values clearly varied among geographical groups, common genera were identified in all groups, including the fungal genus Cladosporium, and the bacterial genera Bacillus and Rhodococcus. According to classic principles of co-evolutionary relationship, these genera might have a closer association with their host insect vector B. agrestis than other genera identified. Some cutaneous bacterial genera (e.g., Pseudomonas) displaying weak interdependency with insect vectors may be hazardous to agricultural environments via mechanical transmission via B. agrestis. This study provides comprehensive information regarding the cutaneous microflora of B. agrestis, which can help in the control of such pests for crop management.

Plant growth promoting effect of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens H-2-5 on crop plants and influence on physiological changes in soybean under soil salinity.

This study was aimed to identify plant growth-promoting bacterial isolates from soil samples and to investigate their ability to improve plant growth and salt tolerance by analysing phytohormones production and phosphate solubilisation. Among the four tested bacterial isolates (I-2-1, H-1-4, H-2-3, and H-2-5), H-2-5 was able to enhance the growth of Chinese cabbage, radish, tomato, and mustard plants. The isolated bacterium H-2-5 was identified as Bacillus amyloliquefaciens H-2-5 based on 16S rDNA sequence and phylogenetic analysis. The secretion of gibberellins (GA4, GA8, GA9, GA19, and GA20) from B. amyloliquefaciens H-2-5 and their phosphate solubilisation ability may contribute to enhance plant growth. In addition, the H-2-5-mediated mitigation of short term salt stress was tested on soybean plants that were affected by sodium chloride. Abscisic acid (ABA) produced by the H-2-5 bacterium suppressed the NaCl-induced stress effects in soybean by enhancing plant growth and GA4 content, and by lowering the concentration of ABA, salicylic acid, jasmonic acid, and proline. These results suggest that GAs, ABA production, and the phosphate solubilisation capacity of B. amyloliquefaciens H-2-5 are important stimulators that promote plant growth through their interaction and also to improve plant growth by physiological changes in soybean at saline soil.

Foodborne Infectious Diseases Mediated by Inappropriate Infection Control in Food Service Businesses and Relevant Countermeasures in Korea.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this review is to propose an appropriate course of action for improving the guidelines followed by food handlers for control of infection. For this purpose, previous epidemiological reports related to acute gastroenteritis in food service businesses mediated by food handlers were intensively analyzed. METHODS: Relevant studies were identified in international databases. We selected eligible papers reporting foodborne infectious disease outbreaks. Among primary literature collection, the abstract of each article was investigated to find cases that absolutely identified a causative factor to be food handlers' inappropriate infection control and the taxon of causative microbial agents by epidemiological methodologies. Information about the sites (type of food business) where the outbreaks occurred was investigated. RESULTS: A wide variety of causative microbial agents has been investigated, using several epidemiological methods. These agents have shown diverse propagation pathways based on their own molecular pathogenesis, physiology, taxonomy, and etiology. CONCLUSION: Depending on etiology, transmission, propagation, and microbiological traits, we can predict the transmission characteristics of pathogens in food preparation areas. The infected food workers have a somewhat different ecological place in infection epidemiology as compared to the general population. However, the current Korean Food Safety Act cannot propose detailed guidelines. Therefore, different methodologies have to be made available to prevent further infections.

The effect of fermented buckwheat on producing l-carnitine- and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-enriched designer eggs.

BACKGROUND: The potential of fermented buckwheat as a feed additive was studied to increase l-carnitine and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in designer eggs. Buckwheat contains high levels of lysine, methionine and glutamate, which are precursors for the synthesis of l-carnitine and GABA. Rhizopus oligosporus was used for the fermentation of buckwheat to produce l-carnitine and GABA that exert positive effects such as enhanced metabolism, antioxidant activities, immunity and blood pressure control. RESULTS: A novel analytical method for simultaneously detecting l-carnitine and GABA was developed using liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS) and LC/MS/MS. The fermented buckwheat extract contained 4 and 34 times more l-carnitine and GABA respectively compared with normal buckwheat. Compared with the control, the fermented buckwheat extract-fed group showed enriched l-carnitine (13.6%) and GABA (8.4%) in the yolk, though only l-carnitine was significantly different (P < 0.05). Egg production (9.4%), albumen weight (2.1%) and shell weight (5.8%) were significantly increased (P < 0.05). There was no significant difference in yolk weight, and total cholesterol (1.9%) and triglyceride (4.9%) in the yolk were lowered (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Fermented buckwheat as a feed additive has the potential to produce l-carnitine- and GABA-enriched designer eggs with enhanced nutrition and homeostasis. These designer eggs pose significant potential to be utilized in superfood production and supplement industries. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Systems biology analysis reveals role of MDM2 in diabetic nephropathy.

To derive new insights in diabetic complications, we integrated publicly available human protein-protein interaction (PPI) networks with global metabolic networks using metabolomic data from patients with diabetic nephropathy. We focused on the participating proteins in the network that were computationally predicted to connect the urine metabolites. MDM2 had the highest significant number of PPI connections. As validation, significant downregulation of MDM2 gene expression was found in both glomerular and tubulointerstitial compartments of kidney biopsy tissue from 2 independent cohorts of patients with diabetic nephropathy. In diabetic mice, chemical inhibition of MDM2 with Nutlin-3a led to reduction in the number of podocytes, increased blood urea nitrogen, and increased mortality. Addition of Nutlin-3a decreased WT1+ cells in embryonic kidneys. Both podocyte- and tubule-specific MDM2-knockout mice exhibited severe glomerular and tubular dysfunction, respectively. Interestingly, the only 2 metabolites that were reduced in both podocyte and tubule-specific MDM2-knockout mice were 3-methylcrotonylglycine and uracil, both of which were also reduced in human diabetic kidney disease. Thus, our bioinformatics tool combined with multi-omics studies identified an important functional role for MDM2 in glomeruli and tubules of the diabetic nephropathic kidney and links MDM2 to a reduction in 2 key metabolite biomarkers.

First Report of Leaf Spot Caused by Alternaria tenuissima on Black Chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) in Korea.

In July 2015, diseased leaves of black chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) were observed in Danyang and Gochang, Korea. The symptoms appeared as circular or irregular brown leaf spots, from which Alternaria tenuissima was isolated. The isolates were cultured on potato dextrose agar, and their morphological characteristics were observed under a light microscope. The colonies were whitish to ash colored. The pathogenicity test on healthy black chokeberry leaves produced circular brown spots, in line with the original symptoms. Molecular analyses of the ITS, GPD, RPB2, and TEF genes were conducted to confirm the identity of the pathogen. The phylogeny of the multi-gene sequences indicated that the causal agent was A. tenuissima. This study is the first report of A. tenuissima leaf spot on black chokeberry (A. melanocarpa).